1. 2.1 CPU Caches, Coherence, and Memory Orderinghistorical

    CPU cache hierarchy, cache lines, MESI-style coherence, store buffers, invalidation handling, memory ordering, and the role of fences.

  2. 2.2 Main Memoryhistorical

    Main memory as byte-addressable volatile storage, endianness, alignment, locality, and its place between CPU caches and persistent storage.

  3. 2.3 Persistent Storage vs. Memoryhistorical

    A qualitative comparison of DRAM, SSDs, and HDDs across latency, throughput, capacity, cost, persistence, and sequential vs. random access.